Against the backdrop of deglobalization, with ongoing international geopolitical events such as the Russia-Ukraine war, the Red Sea crisis, and the Israel-Iran conflict, the role of the Belt and Road Initiative, especially along the ancient Silk Road, has become increasingly prominent, serving as a strategic lever for China to further advance its opening-up policy. Unlike Atlantic or Pacific trade routes, the overland Silk Road has, over time, developed a unique set of negotiation traditions and trade rules.

From the seventh century, the ancient overland Silk Road has gradually evolved into one of the world's major Islamic cultural regions, encompassing numerous countries and areas where Islam is the dominant religion. Within China itself, provinces and regions from Shaanxi to Xinjiang are home to large populations of Muslims. At the same time, countries ranging from the five Central Asian nations to Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey make up one of the world's most widely distributed Muslim regions.

Even in modern times, all forms of trade along this global trade corridor still reflect the traditions of the ancient Silk Road. Among them, the bazaar is the most important and representative mode of transaction in this cultural region, so much so that the mosque and the bazaar were the dual focal points of a city centuries ago, and remain so in some regions today.

The term "bazaar" has a long history and originates from the Middle Persian word "wāzār", meaning "marketplace". The earliest known appearance of the word "bazaar" in Uyghur literature can be found in a bilingual Chinese-Uyghur text compiled around the 15th-century, and the term is transcribed phonetically in Chinese characters that read "ba sa'er".

In Chinese historical records, the first description of a bazaar appears in the 13th-century Record of a Journey to the West. The book recounts that in 1252, Hulagu Khan, under the order of Möngke Khan, the fourth Khaghan of the Mongol Empire, led a military expedition. Along the way, he observed the Uyghur people engaged in trade at a "bazaar", where crowds gathered and the scene was bustling with activity.

Of course, the form and concept of a bazaar must have existed long before the appearance of the word, though in any case, communities along the Islamic cultural regions have been using the term "bazaar" to refer to marketplaces. This term has also been borrowed by numerous Western languages, specifically referring to the bustling markets of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, and even South Asia, typically characterized by covered streets lined with numerous small stalls and shops.

In these regions influenced by Islamic culture, there are numerous and diverse bazaars, among which many are world-renowned "grand bazaars." In parts of China, especially in Muslim-populated areas such as Xinjiang, bazaars have a long history and are deeply intertwined with local history, society, and daily life. For instance, the Kashgar Bazaar is said to have existed even before the advent of currency, preserving the traditional trade customs of the Silk Road. Another example is the Xinjiang International Grand Bazaar, which features a dominant earthy yellow tone and incorporates architectural elements from Greece, ancient Rome, West Asia, and Central Asia. There, one can find products from exquisite handicrafts to clothing.

In Central Asia, there are also numerous bazaars. In Uzbekistan, Tashkent's Chorsu Bazaar has existed since the 13th century and is known for its massive domed structure. In Kyrgyzstan, the Osh Bazaar, one of the largest markets in the country, offers things from locally produced yogurt and honey to handwoven carpets. In Tajikistan, the Dushanbe Grand Bazaar is the most famous, renowned for its colorful goods and vibrant market atmosphere. In Kazakhstan, the Green Bazaar in Almaty attracts wholesalers from across the region.

The largest indoor bazaar in the world is the Tabriz Grand Bazaar in Iran. With a history of over 600 years, it brings together goods such as saffron and Persian carpets, and traditional crafts like copper forging and miniature painting, which remain vibrant to this day. In Turkey, the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul has a history of more than 550 years and offers an astonishing variety of goods, from carpets to gold, from textiles to spices.

Today, the bazaar, as a mode of trade and commerce, has been widely embraced around the world and has developed distinct characteristics of its own. First is its spatial openness; the bazaar serves as an important open public space for the exchange of goods, social interaction, and cultural integration. It is also a place where people gather. On market days, a wide variety of people gather at the bazaar, with farmers and herders traditionally making up the main participant groups. Then, there is the abundance of goods. Bazaars offer a vast array of products, functioning as hubs for goods distribution and transit. Finally, there is the specificity of timing. Bazaar days are often scheduled by the week, with any given day potentially serving as a market day.

To this day, not all vendors in large markets across Central Asian countries display price tags. Even when buying something as inexpensive as a flatbread, people still haggle. In countries in Central Asia and the Arab world, negotiation skills are vital for survival and are cultivated from an early age as both an art form and a way of social interaction. Buyers and sellers use bargaining not only to make deals, but also to build relationships, demonstrate wit, and show humor.

In contrast, not bargaining may be seen by some sellers as a breach of trade etiquette, as negotiation is often viewed as a respectful and expected part of the transaction process. In many trading scenarios, sellers will intentionally quote a high price, expecting the buyer to negotiate. If the buyer pays the initial price without bargaining, the seller might feel that the buyer does not respect the transaction process or is simply not savvy enough.

When it comes to pricing, sellers typically do not operate within fixed upper or lower limits. Instead, prices are more often determined based on mutually understood contextual factors, or, more specifically, based on the general market price of goods within the bazaar. When it comes to commerce, trade, and finance, the Qur'an has clearly stated, "Allah has permitted trade and forbidden usury (Surah Al-Baqarah, verse 275)", and this has become the basis of transaction in the Islamic world.

What should be noted is that excessive bargaining can damage one's reputation. For example, forcing the price below the cost of goods is considered impolite. Therefore, during negotiations, it is common to ask directly about the "base cost", and then offer a reasonable profit margin on top of that.

Of course, bargaining styles vary slightly across different regions. Sellers in Tajikistan tend to be more gentle and often make concessions after the first counteroffer. Uzbeks prefer extended conversations, gradually lowering the price as familiarity builds. In contrast, vendors at Kazakhstan's Green Bazaar are stricter; if they sense the buyer isn't serious, they may end the conversation outright. In this process, those unfamiliar with the unspoken rules can easily get into unnecessary disputes.

In addition, bargaining takes many diverse forms. Take Xinjiang as an example: aside from the common practice of verbal offers and counteroffers, there is also the unique tradition of "bargaining within the sleeves". In this custom, the buyer and seller either clasp hands inside their sleeves or shake hands and use their fingers to indicate prices. The entire process is silent, with both parties intensely focused on changing finger gestures until a deal is reached.

In Uyghur and Arab cultures, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa, haggling is regarded as a core norm and even an art form in business, diplomacy, and everyday transactions. Most things are considered negotiable or tradeable, a mindset shaped by historical trading practices such as the souq markets and Islamic cultural influences, which emphasize negotiation, flexibility, relationship-building, and mutual benefit.

It is important to note that not everything is open to negotiation. Matters related to honor, religion, or family core values are generally non-negotiable. However, nearly everything else often involves some level of bargaining. For example, in Gaza, during repeated negotiations, Israeli forces have strategically targeted Hamas's honor culture, which is a key to understanding the complexities of the Gaza issue.

Therefore, understanding and becoming familiar with the bargaining culture along the ancient Silk Road can contribute to building stronger commercial and diplomatic relationships with some Muslim-majority countries and regions.

Final analysis conclusion:

In several cultures in Central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa, especially in commerce, diplomacy, and daily transactions, bargaining is regarded as both a core social norm and an art form. There is a general tendency to view most things as negotiable or open to trade. This tradition is rooted in historical patterns of commerce that emphasize negotiation, flexibility, relationship-building, and mutual benefit. However, it is important to note that bargaining is not absolute; issues involving honor, religion, or core family values are typically non-negotiable.

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Xia Ri is an Industry Researcher at ANBOUND, an independent think tank.